Selected Topics of Comparison in Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith

by Peter Mazal

chapter 3

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Chapter 4

THE SON AND THE FATHER - A BAHÁ´Í VIEW

In the Bahá´í Writings, Jesus Christ is referred to several times as Son of Man. In the passage quoted below, Bahá´u´lláh pays a moving tribute to Jesus. He testifies of him, as foretold in the Bible (John 15:26), and confirms and elucidates the spiritual meaning of the Biblical healing miracles.[1] Most interestingly, the impact of Christ's sacrifice is described in inspirational terms, being universal and perennial in nature, complementing the traditional view of individual redemption, which is also confirmed in the Bahá´í Writings.[2] Cole writes that "Jesus' passion is here identified as the motive force behind Christian civilization, the unseen source of human advance" and acknowledges the innovative contribution of Bahá´u´lláh "in linking the redemption gained by the cross to ideas such as civilization, progress, and the arts and sciences."[3] Taking all these aspects into consideration, it is safe to say that here the title Son of Man has a messianic meaning rather than being a reference to the human station of Jesus.

Know thou that when the Son of Man yielded up His breath to God, the whole creation wept with a great weeping. By sacrificing Himself, however, a fresh capacity was infused into all created things. Its
evidences, as witnessed in all the peoples of the earth, are now manifest before thee. The deepest wisdom which the sages have uttered, the profoundest learning which any mind hath unfolded, the arts which the
ablest hands have produced, the influence exerted by the most potent of rulers, are but manifestations of
the quickening power released by His transcendent, His all-pervasive, and resplendent Spirit.

We testify that when He came into the world, He shed the splendor of His glory upon all created things. Through Him the leper recovered from the leprosy of perversity and ignorance. Through Him, the unchaste and wayward were healed. Through His power, born of Almighty God, the eyes of the blind were opened,
and the soul of the sinner sanctified.

Leprosy may be interpreted as any veil that interveneth between man and the recognition of the Lord, his God.
Whoso alloweth himself to be shut out from Him is indeed a leper, who shall not be remembered in the
Kingdom of God, the Mighty, the All-Praised. We bear witness that through the power of the Word of God
every leper was cleansed, every sickness was healed, every human infirmity was banished. He it is Who
purified the world. Blessed is the man who, with a face beaming with light, hath turned towards Him.[4]

The eschatological references to the coming of the Son of Man have, according to Bahá´í view, found their fulfillment in the subsequent missions of Muhammad, the Báb and Bahá´u´lláh. In the Kitab-i Iqan, we find an extensive exegesis of Matt. 24:29-31, where the apocalyptic scenario of the shaking of "the powers of heaven" is explained in spiritual terms, although the physical (literal) realization of some of the phenomena is acknowledged.[5] Primarily aimed at justifying the claim of the Báb, Bahá´u´lláh's apology is universal in character. Every prophet comes at a time when religion has lost its purity and illuminating power (one meaning of the darkening of sun, moon and stars). All of them are faced with the opposition of the clergy of previous religions who also prevent their followers to recognize the new divine Messenger (another meaning of the same imagery). The underlying motives of this clerical opposition, according to Bahá´u´lláh, are thirst for power and material wealth, ignorance, corruption, selfishness, pride and hypocrisy. These self-centered characteristics are also the cause for the rising of manifold sects, because "in leadership they have recognized the ultimate object of their endeavour, and account pride and haughtiness as the highest attainments of their heart's desire." This is the true meaning of the "oppression" (Matt. 24:29), when people, in their search for truth and divine knowledge, "should not know where to go for it and from whom to seek it".[6] Bahá´u´lláh's stern rebuke of the clergy is reminiscent of Christ's critique of the Pharisees and Bahá´u´lláh even compares the divine leaders with "a number of voracious beasts [that] have gathered and preyed upon the carrion of the souls of men."[7] This "oppression" and the other events described are "the essential feature of every Revelation."[8]

Consequently, in the scheme of 'eternal return', every divine Messenger succeeding Christ (i.e., Muhammad, Báb and Bahá´u´lláh) could be regarded as "the Son of man [coming] in the glory of his father" (Matt. 16:24). However, just as the title 'Son' is most appropriate for Jesus, and the designation 'Seal' most befitting for Muhammad, the station of 'Fatherhood' would best characterize the dispensation of Bahá´u´lláh.

This can be best explained with the doctrine of the 'twofold station' of the Messengers of God.
From the point of view of the "station of pure abstraction and essential unity",[9] every Manifestation of God could be addressed with the same name. Such an understanding helps to avoid the temptation of regarding a certain title as more prominent than others, and of elevating one religion above the rest. From the point of view of the second station however, the "station of distinction",[10] certain names and titles are surely more meaningful than others, because "each of the Manifestations of God hath a distinct individuality, a definitely prescribed mission, a predestined Revelation, and specially designated limitations."[11] Regarding the designation Son of God for instance, Stockman has aptly argued that "while all Manifestations exemplify perfect Sonship, it was a particular and central characteristic of Jesus Christ's mission to exemplify such a relationship."[12] Similarly it can be argued that the concept of 'Fatherhood' fits best both the personality and the mission of Bahá´u´lláh.[13]
The Father

It is not so much the image of the Son of Man that is taken up again with reference to Bahá´u´lláh, but the appearance "in the glory of the Father", shortened to "the Father", which is stressed when describing the station of Bahá´u´lláh.[14] In the following passage, it is Christ who, as the Son of Man, hails the advent of the Father. This quote is taken from a tablet that Bahá´u´lláh called Lawh-i Aqdas (Most Holy Tablet).[15]

The river Jordan is joined to the Most Great Ocean, and the Son, in the holy vale, crieth out: ´Here am I,
here am I O Lord, my God!', whilst Sinai circleth round the House, and the Burning Bush calleth aloud:
´He Who is the Desired One is come in His transcendent majesty.' Say, Lo! The Father is come, and that
which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled! This is the Word which the Son concealed, when to
those around Him He said: ´Ye cannot bear it now.' And when the appointed time was fulfilled and the
Hour had struck, the Word shone forth above the horizon of the Will of God.[16]

Likewise, in a tablet to the Pope Pius IX, Bahá´u´lláh raises the claim of being the 'Father' who the Christians have been waiting for for almost nineteen hundred years. Again, as in the passage quoted above, Bahá´u´lláh equals the station of the Father with that of the Word (Gr. logos) that had been concealed by Christ, because of the inability of his contemporaries to "bear" it (cf. John 16:12).

The Word which the Son concealed is made manifest. It hath been sent down in the form of the human
temple in this day. Blessed be the Lord Who is the Father! He, verily, is come unto the nations in His
most great majesty. Turn your faces towards Him, O concourse of the righteous... This is the day whereon
the Rock (Peter) crieth out and shouteth, and celebrateth the praise of its Lord, the All-Possessing, the Most
High, saying: ´Lo! The Father is come, and that which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled!...'
My body longeth for the cross, and Mine head waiteth the thrust of the spear, in the path of the All-Merciful,
that the world may be purged from its transgressions....[17]

In describing the fatherly characteristics of Bahá´u´lláh's life and mission, we can analyze the primary duties and responsibilities of a father towards his family and look for equivalent aspects promoted by Bahá´u´lláh for the family of humankind. A responsible father would provide for and support his family and would be concerned about the well-being of all its members. He would make sure that his children receive the best education possible and can develop their talents. He would also guide and counsel his children and foster the ties of family unity.[18] It is safe to say that all of these aspects – the well-being of humanity, education, guidance and consultation, and peace and unity – are central and interdependent themes in Bahá´u´lláh's Revelation.

Concerning the well-being of humanity, Bahá´u´lláh declares that his Teachings provide the basis for its achievement. "The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established. This unity can never be achieved so long as the counsels which the Pen of the Most High hath revealed are suffered to pass unheeded."[19] These teachings consist of Laws, Ordinances and Exhortations, covering all aspects of life, personal and social, spiritual and material. Bahá´u´lláh himself likens his teachings to parental educational measures. "We school you with the rod of wisdom and laws, like unto the father who educateth his son, and this for naught but the protection of your own selves and the elevation of your stations."[20]

Bahá´u´lláh has established the institution of the House of Justice and delegated his divine, 'parental' authority to its members who should "regard themselves as the guardians appointed of God for all that dwell on earth."[21] It seems that the children of mankind, on the verge of maturity, are still under age, so to speak, and in need of a guardian.[22] However, just as responsible parents would acknowledge the growing maturity and independence of their adolescent children and regard themselves more as partners and helpmates than as educators, the Bahá´í administrative institutions should play a similar role. Bahá´ís are encouraged to see in them "not only their elected representatives, but their helper, - one might almost say their father - and the one to whom they can confidently take their problem.[23] The guiding role of the Bahá´í institutions is also described by taking up the ancient imagery of the shepherd and his flock.[24]

O ye Men of Justice! Be ye, in the realm of God, shepherds unto His sheep and guard
them from the ravening wolves that have appeared in disguise, even as ye would guard
your own sons. Thus exhorteth you the Counsellor, the Faithful.[25]

The divinely ordained institution of the Local Spiritual Assembly operates at the first
levels of human society and is the basic administrative unit of Bahá'u'lláh's World Order...
It protects the Cause of God; it acts as the loving shepherd of the Bahá'í flock.[26]


The "Bahá´í flock" consists of people from every religious and ethnic background. Sears has therefore argued that Christ's statement, "And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be one fold, and one shepherd" (John 10:16), relates to Bahá´u´lláh's mission as he "is the Shepherd of all the sheep from whatever flock they may have come."[27] This view has been popularized among Bahá´ís, as Sours observes.[28] However, the Christian interpretation that this refers to the uniting of diverse pagan peoples and the Jews, is certainly compatible with the Bahá´í point of view of "the progressive nature of prophetic fulfillment".[29] According to this perspective, "visible evidences of fulfillment will be greater in this age than in any past age, so much so that it can be said that such prophecies culminate in this age."[30]

But Bahá´u´lláh is not only adressing humanity as a whole in his role as 'universal Father'. He provides abundant guidance for parents, often addressing specifically the fathers. He confirms and reinforces the institution of marriage, which he regards as foundation of community life, calling it a "fortress for well-being and salvation".[31] He views it as a moral law to marry and upholds the primary purpose of raising children, prioritizing moral and spiritual education.[32] It is precisely in this area of comprehensive education that Bahá´u´lláh encourages and exhorts fathers to take a more decisive part.[33] The importance of the mother as "first educator" is being recognized as "the most important formative influence in his [the child's] development". On the other hand, "the father also has the responsibility of educating his children, and this responsibility is so weighty that Bahá'u'lláh has stated that a father who fails to exercise it forfeits his rights of fatherhood...."[34] This area of responsibility covers both the intellectual and artistic training of the children as well as their moral upbringing.

God hath prescribed unto every father to educate his children, both boys and girls, in the sciences
and in morals, and in crafts and professions....[35]

Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his son and daughter in the art of
reading and writing and in all that hath been laid down in the Holy Tablet.[36]
In light of the paradigm shift mentioned before, fathers are encouraged and expected to develop and display characteristics such as love, tenderness and compassion that traditionally are viewed as 'female'. In Jungian terms, the Bahá´í Writings appeal to men to balance their personality by building up their anima. Following passage makes gender stereotypes look old by employing a classic female metaphor, the hen nurturing her chicken, and transfer it to describe a new role model for fathers.

If a wise father plays with his children, who has a right to say it is not good for them? He calls
them to come to him as the hen calls her chicks; he knows that they are little and must be coaxed
along - coaxed along because they are young and tiny.[37]

Concerning counselling and guidance, Bahá´u´lláh takes the same approach as outlined above with respect to his role as divine Educator and delegating this function to the elected institutions. Alluding to one of the Messianic titles given by Isaiah, Bahá´u´lláh calls himself the "true", "trustworthy", "faithful", or "benevolent Counsellor"[38] and exhorts the people to give ear unto his call and not to be heedless. With the ethical principles for and the method of consultation he provided an instrument that would ensure that "the lamp of guidance" continues to be lit.[39] "No welfare and no well-being can be attained except through consultation"[40], he says, a statement that consonates with and can be linked to the one about unity being the prerequisite for well-being (quoted above). Consultation and compassion, the frank and open exchange of thoughts in an appreciative and encouraging environment, could then be regarded as a means for achieving unity on any level of society.

The heaven of divine wisdom is illumined with the two luminaries of consultation and compassion.
Take ye counsel together in all matters, inasmuch as consultation is the lamp of guidance which
leadeth the way, and is the bestower of understanding.[41]

Consultation bestoweth greater awareness and transmuteth conjecture into certitude. It is a shining
light which, in a dark world, leadeth the way and guideth. For everything there is and will continue
to be a station of perfection and maturity. The maturity of the gift of understanding is made manifest
through consultation.[42]

The one-sided communication of the past, delivered by patriarchal fathers, rulers, and priests, is being replaced by the egalitarian setting of joint problem-solving and truth-finding. The quality of consultation, being the result and expression of intellectual maturity, as the quote above suggests, can be regarded as yardstick for the level of maturity a certain group or institution has reached.
The Everlasting Father

The designation Father (in the context of "glory of the Father") as messianic title is not confined to Christianity only. In a prominent passage of his writings, the prophet Isaiah gives five names by which the future Davidic Messiah would be known.

For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given: and the government shall be upon his shoulder:
and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father,
The Prince of Peace. Of the increase of his government and peace there shall be no end, upon the
throne of David, and upon his kingdom, to order it, and to establish it with judgment and with justice
from henceforth even for ever. (Isa. 9:5-6).

It is important to understand that these names are not proper names in the modern sense but rather descriptive designations or titles. Even proper names, in Biblical tradition, are often descriptive in nature or sometimes replaced with new names, reflecting new spiritual characteristics.[43]
In a dream, Joseph was told to call Mary's son Jesus, "for he will save his people from their sins" (Matt. 1:21). The proper name here has a descriptive meaning referring to the redemptive character of Jesus' mission. Interestingly enough, the gospel narrative goes on to say that this event constituted the fulfillment of Isaiah's prophecy to King Ahas: "Behold, a virgin[44] shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel" (Isa. 7:14). In the New Testament passage, the clarification "Immanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us" (Matt. 1:22-23) is being added, obviously to point out that this prophecy was not fulfilled literally but symbolically. People did not call Jesus by the name Immanuel but according to his own testimony, his presence signified the presence of God on earth.[45]

With this understanding of the descriptive nature of names in mind, we can further explore the name Everlasting Father. Bahá´u´lláh only once uses this designation (in the Writings translated so far) when he addresses the representatives of Christianity, challenging them with the claim of having fulfilled Isaiah's prophecy.

O concourse of bishops! Trembling hath seized all the kindreds of the earth, and He Who is the
Everlasting Father calleth aloud between earth and heaven. Blessed the ear that hath heard, and
the eye that hath seen, and the heart that hath turned unto Him Who is the Point of Adoration of
all who are in the heavens and all who are on earth....[46]

The allusion to Matt. 13:16 ("But blessed are your eyes, for they see: and your ears, for they hear.") serves as a warning not to expect a literal fulfillment of these prophecies. It is only with spiritual senses, so to speak, that the advent of the Messiah would be witnessed. Referring to himself as a universal "Point of Adoration", Bahá´u´lláh reinforces the image of being the Everlasting Father for the whole of humanity and, by implication, of fulfilling the end-time prophecies of other (non-semitic) religions as well.[47] In a similar vein, the prophet Haggai referred to the universality of the future Messiah when he called him "the desire of all nations".

For thus saith the LORD of hosts; Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake the heavens,
and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land; And I will shake all nations, and the desire of all
nations shall come: and I will fill this house with glory, saith the LORD of hosts (Haggai 2:6-7).

On two occasions, Bahá´u´lláh takes up this designation, further supporting his claim to be a universal Prophet expected and desired by all peoples.

Glory be unto Thee, O Lord of the world and Desire of the nations, O Thou Who hast become
manifest in the Greatest Name...[48]

This is the Day, O my Lord, whereon every atom of the earth hath been made to vibrate and to
cry out: "O Thou Who art the Revealer of signs and the King of creation! I, verily, perceive the
fragrance of Thy presence. Methinks Thou hast revealed Thyself, and unlocked the door of
reunion with Thee before all who are in Thy heaven and all who are on Thy earth. I am persuaded
through the fragrance of Thy robe, O my Lord, that the world hath been honored through Thy
presence, and hath inhaled the sweet smell of Thy meeting. I know not, however, O Thou the
Beloved of the world and the Desire of the nations, the place wherein the throne of Thy majesty
hath been established, nor the seat which hath been made Thy footstool, and been illumined with
the splendors of the light of Thy face."[49]

In this second quote, the universality of the response is expressed as the desire of the whole creation, not only of its peoples but also of "every atom". The connection to the Davidic messianic kingship is established by reference to the "throne" and the "footstool".[50] In one sense, the whole earth serves as the footstool of the heavenly throne[51], more specifically, the Holy Land[52], respectively, Mount Carmel.[53]

The Tablet of Carmel, revealed by Bahá´u´lláh during his fourth visit to Haifa, one year before his passing, "contains significant allusions to the establishment of the World Centre of the Faith and is considered its charter."[54] Seventy-two years later, in 1963, the Universal House of Justice was elected for the first time and has guided the Bahá´í world ever since.
One of their means of guidance is an annual message to the Bahá´í world at Ridvan,[55] summarizing the previous year's achievements and highlighting the goals for the year to come. Often these messages contain some kind of visionary outlook, pointing towards the 'Golden Age' of universal peace and brotherhood. In the 1973 Message, the Biblical themes of the Everlasting Father, his Covenant, and the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth are connected to the present-day activities of the Bahá´í community.

The progress of the Cause of God gathers increasing momentum and we may with confidence
look forward to the day when this Community ... shall have raised on this tormented planet the
fair mansions of God's Own Kingdom ... All this shall be accomplished within the Covenant of
the everlasting Father, the Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh."[56]

Such references can be regarded as a continuation of ´Abdu´l-Bahá's approach to increase the awareness of the historical religious connections and the fulfillment of prophecies in our present day and age.[57]


The Ancient of Days

Bearing the twin revelation of the Báb and Bahá´u´lláh in mind, we can say that Daniel's vision (and similarly Enoch's) could also refer to the advent of both these two holy figures. Traditionally, the "one like the Son of man" (Dan. 7:13) is regarded as the Messiah and the "Ancient of Days" (Enoch: "Chief of Days") as symbolizing God. But when we interpret these visions as depicting the twin manifestations, the "Son of man" figure would represent the Báb and the "Ancient of Days" Bahá´u´lláh. The life and mission of the Báb equals in many ways that of Christ, summarized by Shoghi Effendi in the following passage:

The passion of Jesus Christ, and indeed His whole public ministry, alone offer a parallel to the
Mission and death of the Bab, a parallel which no student of comparative religion can fail to
perceive or ignore. In the youthfulness and meekness of the Inaugurator of the Babi Dispensation;
in the extreme brevity and turbulence of His public ministry; in the dramatic swiftness with which
that ministry moved towards its climax; in the apostolic order which He instituted, and the primacy
which He conferred on one of its members; in the boldness of His challenge to the time-honored
conventions, rites and laws which had been woven into the fabric of the religion He Himself had
been born into; in the role which an officially recognized and firmly entrenched religious hierarchy
played as chief instigator of the outrages which He was made to suffer; in the indignities heaped
upon Him; in the suddenness of His arrest; in the interrogation to which He was subjected; in the
derision poured, and the scourging inflicted, upon Him; in the public affront He sustained; and,
finally, in His ignominious suspension before the gaze of a hostile multitude - in all these we cannot
fail to discern a remarkable similarity to the distinguishing features of the career of Jesus Christ.[58]

It is therefore more than appropriate to see in the Báb the perfect resemblance of the Son of man imagery of Jesus. At least on one occasion (in the excerpts translated so far) the Báb refers to himself as the Son when he urges his mother, Fatimih-Bagum, to recognize the divine Sonship in her son. The equation of the Son with the divine Word (logos) echoes the Johannine prologue and
provides a further link to Christ.[59]
O Thou Mother of the Remembrance! May the peace and salutation of God rest upon thee.
Indeed thou hast endured patiently in Him Who is the sublime Self of God. Recognize then
the station of thy Son Who is none other than the mighty Word of God.[60]

Bahá´u´lláh, on the other side, refers to himself several times as the "Ancient of Days", respectively as representative of the "Ancient of Days", using the imagery of pen, voice, tongue, fingers, and countenance: "Wert thou to incline thine inner ear unto all created things, thou wouldst hear:
´The Ancient of Days is come in His great glory!'''[61]

All glory be to this Day, the Day in which the fragrances of mercy have been wafted over all
created things, a Day so blest that past ages and centuries can never hope to rival it, a Day in
which the countenance of the Ancient of Days hath turned towards His holy seat. Thereupon
the voices of all created things, and beyond them those of the Concourse on high, were heard
calling aloud: "Haste thee, O Carmel, for lo, the light of the countenance of God, the Ruler of
the Kingdom of Names and Fashioner of the heavens, hath been lifted upon thee...
Rejoice, for God hath in this Day established upon thee His throne..."[62]

Both these passages allude to the apocalyptic vision of Daniel. In the first, Bahá´u´lláh identifies himself directly with the Ancient of Days, which supports the interpretation suggested above. In the second, as in all the other representational passages[63], Bahá´u´lláh represents the Godhead. He is the visible expression and manifestation of God, the invisible Ancient of Days. "The Ancient of Days [Bahá´u´lláh] is come in His great glory" because "the door of the knowledge of the Ancient of Days [God]" is "closed in the face of all beings", including the Prophets of God.[64] He is one of the "sanctified mirrors" whose " beauty of their countenance is but a reflection of His [God's] image."[65]
The "snow-white Scroll" that the "Tongue of the Ancient of Days" writes upon could be a further allusion to the biblical Ancient of Days "whose garment was white as snow" (Dan 7:9).

Once again doth the Tongue of the Ancient of Days reveal, while in this Most Great Prison,
these words which are recorded in this snow-white Scroll...[66]

The relationship between garment and scroll becomes more apparent when it is being taken into consideration that the Ancient of Days is synonymous with the Word of God. The garment beautifies the outer form (the body) of the Prophet, just as the scroll beautifies the outer form (the letters) of the Word. Furthermore, both objects are of the same colour and of a similar form (longish, undulating). The colour symbolism refers in both cases to the essence. The whiteness of the garment represents the purity of the Prophet's reality, the whiteness of the scroll represents the purity of the message.

The second characteristic of the biblical Ancient of Days is his white hair. White hair, in consistence with the image of a dignified old man, signifies wisdom. Such a connotation is certainly appropriate for any of the Prophets of God who Bahá´u´lláh calls "Gems of knowledge" and "irreproachable and purest Symbols of wisdom".[67] But hair also turns white because of suffering and sorrows. The "iniquities" of the Shi'ih clergy, heaped upon Bahá´u´lláh in the form of imprisonment, torture and banisment have, according to Shoghi Effendi, "bowed down Bahá'u'lláh,
and turned His hair white, and caused Him to groan aloud in anguish.[68] This description is obviously a direct reference to Bahá´u´lláh's own testimony.

The cruelties inflicted by My oppressors have bowed Me down, and turned My hair white.
Shouldst thou present thyself before My throne, thou wouldst fail to recognize the Ancient
Beauty, for the freshness of His countenance is altered, and its brightness hath faded, by
reason of the oppression of the infidels.[69]

The self-portrayal of Bahá´u´lláh as Ancient Beauty sitting on his throne evokes the apocalyptic scene of Daniel's Day of Judgement and Isaiah's prophecies. He is the one who will sit "upon the throne of David" (Isa. 9:7) and "will come with strong hand" (Isa. 40:10) and "shall judge among the nations" (Isa. 2:4), "the Judge, the Lawgiver and Redeemer of all mankind"[70]. Bahá´u´lláh's lamentation provides a new emphasis though. It calls up Isaiah's description of the Messiah as 'suffering servant'. The impressive scene that Daniel foresaw, when "thousand thousands ministered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him: the judgment was set, and the books were opened" (Dan. 7:10) is tempered with the image of a suffering and grief-stricken king whose "countenance" has lost its "brightness". This shift of emphasis prompts us to take up the symbolism of the "garment" once more and explore another facet of a possibly intended meaning. Just as the white hair symbolizes wisdom but also suffering, the white garment stands not only for purity but for affliction as well. "We have made abasement the garment of glory, and affliction the adornment of Thy temple, O Pride of the worlds."[71]

In another passage, the images of purity and pain are merged. This makes it possible to visualize the messianic Judge in all his majesty and power and yet, in all his weakness and frailty because of his exposure to the world of humanity and the sufferings he had to endure. "I beseech Thee ... by Thy pure and spotless Beauty ... and by Thy Name, cloaked with the garment of affliction every morn and eve..."[72]

The life and mission of Christ was characterized by a stark contrast between material poverty, physical humiliation, and apparent defeat on one side and surrender under God's will, spiritual nobility, royal authority and ultimate victory on the other side. This paradoxical situation had challenged the established traditions of the Jews regarding the appearance and role of their Messiah. This contrast is also typical for the life and mission of Bahá´u´lláh. The spiritual authority of the Prophet is never endangered by any earthly conditions, dire as they may be. This is why Jesus, at the moment of utter helplessness in the hands of the Jewish council, could nevertheless boldly assert that he was indeed the Messiah, endowed with divine power.[73] Similarly, the spiritual authority of Bahá´u´lláh was never impaired regardless of his status as a prisoner, as "the Wronged One".[74]

May all existence be a sacrifice for Thy favour, and all that hath been and will ever be, a ransom
for Thy Word, O Thou the Wronged One amongst the people of enmity, O Thou in Whose grasp
are the reins of all who are in heaven and on earth....[75]

Briefly, this Wronged One hath, in the face of all that hath befallen Him at their hands, and all that
hath been said of Him, endured patiently, and held His peace, inasmuch as it is Our purpose, through
the loving providence of God - exalted be His glory - and His surpassing mercy, to abolish, through
the force of Our utterance, all disputes, war, and bloodshed, from the face of the earth.[76]

The thought that Christ upon his return would have to suffer again may well be a challenging one for many Christians, just as it was hard for the Jews to come to terms with the notion of a suffering Messiah in the first place. Taking the apocalyptic visions literally, expecting the descent of Christ in the clouds of the sky establishing the promised Kingdom of God on earth, leaves no place for his suffering, persecution, and rejection. Bahá´u´lláh repeatedly warns the Christians not to repeat the past mistakes of rejecting the Prophet of God because of the non-fulfillment of prophecies in a literal sense. These literal expectations, he says, constitute one of the intended meanings of the symbolism of the "clouds of heaven". Besides "those things that are contrary to the ways and desires of men", clouds also refer to "the appearance of that immortal Beauty in the image of mortal man with such human limitations as ... glory and abasement" among others.[77] In this context, following passage is illuminating, as it alludes to the suffering of Bahá´u´lláh, drawing on the "cloud" symbolism.

Open your eyes that ye may behold the Ancient Beauty from this shining and luminous station...
The Promised One Himself hath come down from heaven, seated upon the crimson cloud with
the hosts of revelation on His right, and the angels of inspiration on His left...[78]

According to Note 127 in the Kitab-i Aqdas, "the word "crimson" [in the Bahá´í Writings] is used in several allegorical and symbolic senses". One of the primary meanings is certainly the connotation with blood, in the context of suffering and martyrdom, as the following passages show.

O SON OF MAN! Write all that We have revealed unto thee with the ink of light upon the tablet
of thy spirit. Should this not be in thy power, then make thine ink of the essence of thy heart. If
this thou canst not do, then write with that crimson ink that hath been shed in My path. Sweeter
indeed is this to Me than all else, that its light may endure for ever. [79]
O God, my God! Thou seest this wronged servant of Thine, held fast in the talons of ferocious
lions, of ravening wolves, of bloodthirsty beasts. Graciously assist me, through my love for Thee,
that I may drink deep of the chalice that brimmeth over with faithfulness to Thee and is filled with
Thy bountiful Grace; so that, fallen upon the dust, I may sink prostrate and senseless whilst my
vesture is dyed crimson with my blood.[80]

Allusions to Akka as "Crimson Spot", to his cause and its followers as "Companions of the Crimson Arc", or to his Kitab-i Ahd (Book of Covenant) as "Crimson Book" are certainly more complex metaphors whose wide spectrum of meanings cannot be explored here.[81] Nevertheless, the intended meaning of 'suffering' can easily be deduced with reference to Akka as "Crimson Spot". Bahá´u´lláh repeatedly mentions the sufferings and trials that he had to endure in that penal colony, designated by him as the 'Most Great Prison'.[82] However, as the following passages suggest, Bahá´u´lláh sufferered not only or even primarily due to the machinations of his enemies but rather because of
the lack of response towards his divine call.

The eye of My loving-kindness weepeth sore over you, inasmuch as ye have failed to recognize
the One upon Whom ye have been calling in the daytime and in the night season, at even and at
morn. Advance, O people, with snow-white faces and radiant hearts, unto the blest and crimson
Spot, wherein the Sadratu'l-Muntaha is calling: "Verily, there is none other God beside Me, the
Omnipotent Protector, the Self-Subsisting!"[83]

My imprisonment doeth Me no harm, neither the tribulations I suffer, nor the things that have
befallen Me at the hands of My oppressors. That which harmeth Me is the conduct of those who,
though they bear My name, yet commit that which maketh My heart and My pen to lament.[84]

It is obvious that the colour symbolism of 'crimson' is not limited to the level of physical suffering, to the shedding of physical blood. In a broader sense, it can refer to emotional and spiritual suffering as well. The 'bleeding heart' may well cause more pain than any other wound. "From Our eyes there rained tears of anguish, and in Our bleeding heart there surged an ocean of agonizing pain", is Bahá´u´lláh's testimony in another context.[85]

Despite the trials and tribulations during his time of imprisonment in Akka, Bahá´u´lláh
"established His seat" in this "most desolate" of towns.[86] This filthy place then, from a spiritual
perspective, became an "exalted habitation", with strong allusions to the Biblical imagery of the seat of David's throne.

Rejoice with exceeding joy inasmuch as thou hast been remembered in the Most Great Prison and
the Countenance of the Ancient of Days hath turned towards thee from this exalted habitation.[87]

The prison of Akka and its Prisoner are portrayed in the contrasting colours of (physical) abasement and (spiritual) glory. The 'crimson cloud' and the 'Crimson Spot' symbolize simultaneously the sufferings of Bahá´u´lláh and the people's inability to perceive his hidden messianic reality.


The Ancient Beauty

A frequent designation of Bahá´u´lláh is Ancient Beauty. This title can be regarded as synonymous with Ancient of Days: "The Most Great Law is come, and the Ancient Beauty ruleth upon the throne of David.Thus hath My Pen spoken that which the histories of bygone ages have related.[88]

Furthermore, this designation could be regarded as a combination of two Biblical messianic terms, the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7:9) and Wonderful (Isa. 9:5). Wonderful is one of the five names for the Messiah mentioned above. Bahá´u´lláh seemed not to have used this name specifically, although references to his "wonderful" personality can be found in the Bahá´í Writings.[89] Instead, Bahá´u´lláh coined a new designation, which merges the images of beauty with a range of images related to "ancient", such as age, continuity and wisdom. Similarly, the designation Everlasting Beauty combines these attributes, alluding to the terms Everlasting Father and Wonderful.[90]


The phenomenon of deification

Several times in the Bahá´í Writings reference to God is made by the term 'Father', respectively, 'Heavenly Father', following the usage in the New Testament.[91] It is important not to confuse the divine and the prophetic level, so that references to God as Father in the Bible are not wrongly
attributed to Bahá´u´lláh and also to remain alert against the danger of unduly deifying the Prophet-
founder of the Bahá´í Faith. Bahá´u´lláh clarifies, for instance, that the reference to the Father in Matt. 24:36 ("But of that Day and Hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, nor the Son, but the Father.") refers to God and not to himself: "By Father in this connection is meant God - exalted be His glory."[92] This explanation implies that in other cases Father refers to Bahá´u´lláh[93] but its main didactic function seems to be the caveat not to confuse the level of God as Heavenly Father with that of Bahá´u´lláh as being the Everlasting Father. Such caveats have obviously been necessary from Bahá´u´lláh's own lifetime up until today, judging from a variety of statements in response to individual inquiries, clarifying ambiguous and abstruse passages of the Bahá´í Writings.

On one such occasion, Shoghi Effendi clarifies that Bahá´u´lláh cannot be regarded as an "intermediary" between other Prophets and God. Such a view was probably based on Bahá´u´lláh's claim to having fulfilled a prophecy of the Imam Ali: "Anticipate ye the Revelation of Him Who conversed with Moses from the Burning Bush on Sinai."[94] Shoghi Effendi's interpretation rejects a literal reading of this prophecy and provides a key to an appropriate understanding of similar statements of doxology.[95]

Bahá'u'lláh is not the intermediary between other Manifestations and God. Each has His own
relation to the Primal Source. But in the sense that Bahá'u'lláh is the greatest Manifestation to
yet appear, the One who consummates the Revelation of Moses, He was the One Moses
conversed with in the Burning Bush. In other words, Bahá'u'lláh identifies the glory of the
God-Head on that occasion with Himself. No distinction can be made amongst the Prophets
in the sense that They all proceed from one Source, and are of one essence. But Their stations
and functions in this world are different.[96]

Another statement seems also to suggest that Bahá´u´lláh is superior to other Manifestations of God: "The Holy Spirit Itself hath been generated through the agency of a single letter revealed by this Most Great Spirit, if ye be of them that comprehend."[97] Bahá´u´lláh's caveat to "comprehend" this statement well seems to hint at a meaning beyond its literal sense. Superficially, one could assume that Bahá´u´lláh's source of inspiration, the "Most Great Spirit", is substantially different from the "Holy Spirit", the perennial source of guidance for God's Prophets. Following passage, although not directly addressing this mystical utterance, makes clear that the "Most Great Spirit" is identical with the "Holy Spirit". The statement above, therefore, seems to be doxological again, expressing the special station of Bahá´u´lláh, as opposed to any inferred essential distinction.

[T]he "Most Great Spirit," as designated by Himself, and symbolized in the Zoroastrian,
the Mosaic, the Christian, and Muhammadan Dispensations by the Sacred Fire, the Burning
Bush, the Dove and the Angel Gabriel respectively, descended upon, and revealed itself,
personated by a "Maiden," to the agonized soul of Bahá'u'lláh.[98]

Despite such clarifications, thre have always been attempts to deify Bahá´u´lláh, to see in him a fuller and higher expression of the Divine. Unlike in the past, where such notions have led to various religious conflicts and schisms, such thoughts find an outlet in the Bahá´í community and can be expressed freely. Such individual interpretations are appreciated because they "constitute the fruit of man's rational power and may well contribute to a greater comprehension of the Faith."
The only limitations are that personal points of view should be offered in a spirit of humility "as a contribution to knowledge", must not lead to strive and contention, and must not "deny or contend with the authoritative interpretation."[99]

Following excerpt from a tablet of Bahá´u´lláh[100] sheds further light on this issue. It gives room for different views, provided no "contention and disputation" arises.

[O]ne person envisages the Unseen the Transcendent, the Inaccessible One in the Person of the
Manifestation without making any distinction or connection. Others there are who recognise
the Person of the Manifestation as the Appearance of God and consider the commands and
prohibitions of the Manifestation to be identical with such as originate with the one True God.
These two positions are both acceptable before the throne of God. If however, the supporters
of these two positions should contend and quarrel with one another in their exposition of the
two perspectives, both groups are, and hath ever been, rejected. This inasmuch as the purpose
of the spiritual understanding and the exposition of the highest levels of the elucidation of the
teachings is to attract the hearts, cause fellowship between souls, and further the propagation of
the Cause of God. As a result of contention and disputation amongst those who hold to these
two positions, there hath been and will ever result the dissipation of the Cause of God and
both groups shall return to the hellfire despite the fact that they, in their own estimation, soar
in the highest horizon of spiritual understanding.

This is a sobering warning that bars the way to any legitimization of religious disputes. The criteria of establishing "right and wrong" are not to be found in the domain of intellectual arguments and theological propositions but in the process of community building, in overcoming estrangement and fostering love and fellowship. This has always been the case in the eyes of God, Bahá´u´lláh argues, although it may not have been formulated explicitly in previous sacred literature.[101] But since the mission of the "Father", the hallmark of his teachings, is to establish world unity, it is not surprising that this issue is taken up many times in the Bahá´í Writings and explored and dealt with from different angles.


The Relativity of Divine Truth

The relationship symbolized by the Son and the Father can also be described as one of promise and fulfillment. Christ has promised that, upon his return, the Kingdom of God will be established on earth and that humanity will be led "into all truth" (John 16:13).

Bahá´u´lláh's revelation does of course lead into "all truth", as foretold in the Bible. His hundred volumes of Sacred Writings far exceed the sayings and parables of Christ, but all of this nevertheless consists of the "many things" that Christ could have taught if the receptivity and maturity of the people had allowed it.

"All truth", however, is still relative. Humanity, at the threshold of collective maturity, has received abundant guidance for the next millenium, which could be regarded as 'completion' of the message of Christ. But the process of spiritual evolution is never-ending. So it is not surprising that Bahá´u´lláh on the one hand confirms the completion of his revelation[102] but relativizes this statement by referring to the limitations of the human mind in general, respectively to the present stage of intellectual and spiritual development in particular.

All that I have revealed unto thee with the tongue of power, and have written for thee with the pen
of might, hath been in accordance with thy capacity and understanding, not with My state and the
melody of My voice.[103]

The theme of limited human understanding and divine knowledge is addressed in the following two quotes as well. The first focusses on the infinity of divine knowledge, indicating that the process of divine Revelation can never come to an end. The second quote seems to imply that humanity at large could have 'matured' faster and would then have received an even greater amount of divine guidance. In other words, this passage deals with the ancient biblical theme of the reciprocal Covenant between God and humanity.

Behold, how many are the mysteries that lie as yet unravelled within the tabernacle of the
knowledge of God, and how numerous the gems of His wisdom that are still concealed in His
inviolable treasuries! Shouldest thou ponder this in thine heart, thou wouldst realize that His
handiwork knoweth neither beginning nor end.[104]

The generality of mankind is still immature. Had it acquired sufficient capacity We would
have bestowed upon it so great a measure of Our knowledge that all who dwell on earth and
in heaven would have found themselves, by virtue of the grace streaming from Our pen,
completely independent of all knowledge save the knowledge of God, and would have been
securely established upon the throne of abiding tranquillity.[105]

These passages balance the notion of fulfillment with yet another promise, albeit implicit and indirect. Bahá´u´lláh's Revelation constitutes, in the words of Shoghi Effendi, "the promise and crowning glory of past ages and centuries" and "the consummation of all the Dispensations within the Adamic Cycle". It is therefore both a climax and a turningpoint in religious history as it marks "the end of the Prophetic Era and the beginning of the Era of Fulfillment."[106]

From a different point of view, each religion within the Prophetic Era, in its relation to the previous one, was also one of fulfillment.[107] But all of them can rightly be regarded as prophetic, inasmuch as they all promised and focussed on a messianic era of global peace. Similarly it can be said that the Bahá´í Faith, in its relation to the religion to come, contains prophetic elements as well and the same can be expected from the subsequent religions within the "Era of Fulfillment".[108]
Contemplating on Bahá´u´lláh's role as inaugurator of a new cycle, the symbolism of his station as Father gets even a wider range of meaning. Beyond the fulfillment of messianic promises, and the notion of completion and fulfillment, Fatherhood marks the beginning of a new 'family' of divine Messengers to come within the Bahá´í cycle.

Concerning the Manifestations that will come down in the future 'in the shadows of the clouds',
know, verily, that in so far as their relation to the Source of their inspiration is concerned, they
are under the shadow of the Ancient Beauty. In their relation, however, to the age in which they
appear, each and every one of them 'doeth whatsoever He willeth.'[109]

Based on ´Abdu´l-Bahá's prediction that this new cycle "must extend over a period of at least five hundred thousand years"[110], and Bahá´u´lláh's explanation that divine Prophets appear roughly every thousand years[111], we can count with possibly five hundred Manifestations of God within the Bahá´í Era. Each one of them will carry on the torch of divine guidance and refine the human character. At the same time they will undoubtedly refer and pay tribute to the originator of this cycle, to the Everlasting Father.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Canada in 1912. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1982 [1922-25].
---. Selections from the Writings of ´Abdu´l-Bahá. Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre 1978.
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---. Tablets of the Divine Plan. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1977.
---. Will and Testament. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer System), Version 2.0. Crimson Publications 1997.
Arts. A compilation of extracts from the Bahá´í Writings. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer System), Version 2.0.
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Báb. Selections from the Writings of the Báb. Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre 1978.
Bahá´í Prayers. A Selection of Prayers revealed by Bahá´u´lláh, the Báb, and ´Abdu´l-Bahá. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1985 [1954].
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---. Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá´u´lláh. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1983.
---. The Hidden Words. Oxford: Oneworld 1992.
---. The Kitab-i-Aqdas. The Most Holy Book. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1993.
---. The Kitab-i-Iqan. The Book of Certitude. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1974.
---. Prayers and Meditations. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1987 [1938].
---. Tablets of Bahá´u´lláh: Revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre 1978.
---. "Tablet to Jamal-i Burundi". Provisional translation by K. Fananapazir, available on the Internet at
http://www.bahailibrary.com.
Cole, Juan. "Behold the Man: Bahá´u´lláh on the life of Jesus". Published on the Internet at
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Consultation. A compilation of extracts from the Bahá´í Writings. London: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1990.
Esslemont, J.E. Bahá´u´lláh and the New Era. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust, 1980 [1950].
The Holy Bible. Authorized King James Version. London: Diamond Books 1994.
Lights of Guidance. Compiled by Helen Bassett Hornby. New Delhi: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1996 [1983].
Sears, William. The Wine of Astonishment. Oxford: George Ronald 1985 [1963].
Shoghi Effendi. The Advent of Divine Justice. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1990.
---. Bahá´í Administration. Selected Messages 1922-1932. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1974.
---. God Passes By. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1974.
---. The Light of Divine Guidance. The Messages from the Guardian of the Bahá´í Faith to the Bahá´ís of Germany
and Austria. Vol. I. Hofheim-Langenhain: Bahá´í Verlag 1982.
---. Messages to the Antipodes. Communications from Shoghi Effendi to the Bahá´í Communities of Australasia.
Mona Vale NSW: Bahá´í Publications Australia 1997.
---. The Promised Day Is Come. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1996 [1941].
---. Unfolding Destiny. The Messages from the Guardian of the Bahá´í Faith to the Bahá´í Community of the British
Isles. London: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1981.
---. World Order of Bahá´u´lláh. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1991.
Sours, Michael. A Study of Bahá´u´lláh's Tablet to the Christians. Oxford: Oneworld 1990.
---. Understanding Biblical Prophecy. Oxford: Oneworld 1997.
Stockman, Robert. "Jesus Christ in the Bahá´í Writings". The Bahá´í Studies Review 2:1 (1992): 33-41.
Taherzadeh, Adib. The Revelation of Bahá´u´lláh. Vol. 4. Oxford: George Ronald 1988.
Women. Bahá´í Writings on the Equality of Men and Women. London: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1990.

Notes

[1] The spiritual meaning of healing blindness and "hardened hearts" can be deduced from Isaiah 6:9-10, quoted and referred to in John 12:40 resp. John 9:39, whereas the elucidation of leprosy in spiritual terms is novel.
[2] Cf. Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 76.
[3] Juan Cole, "Behold the Man: Bahá´u´lláh on the life of Jesus" 8.
[4] Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 85-6.
[5] The "sign of the Son of man in heaven", for instance, refers both to the appearance of a "star" in the sky and to the coming of a herald, a fore-runner, who announces to and prepares the people for the coming of a new Manifestation of God (see Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 62). For the whole excursus on the three verses of the minor apocalypse (Matt. chapters 24 and 25), which comprises almost a third of the Kitab-i Iqan, see pp. 20-93.
[6] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 30-1.
[7] Ibid., 31. This statement alludes to and sheds light on a similar saying in the minor apocalypse: "For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together" (Matt. 24:28). The New Jerusalem Bible Commentary assumes this to be an inserted proverb, conveying the same idea as the preceding verse (where the coming of the Son of man is compared to a "lightning"), namely being a reference to the "immediate visibility" of the coming of the Messiah. Bahá´u´lláh, on the other hand, links this verse with the succeeding one, reading it as a description of the "oppression" mentioned there.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 152.
[10] Ibid., 176.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Stockman, "Jesus Christ in the Bahá´í Writings". The Bahá´í Studies Review 2:1 (1992): 37-8. Stockman lists the "deeper, more personal, more loving relationship" between God and humanity that Christ exemplified, than the historical fact that this title has been only applied to Jesus, third the "important and fitting counterpoint to the title 'Son of Man'", and fourth that it alludes to the virgin birth.
[13] This point will be discussed further below.
[14] The arabic title Bahá´u´lláh means Glory of God. Equating the term Father with God, it could also be rendered as Glory of the Father.
[15] This tablet is commonly known and referred to as 'Tablet to the Christians'. It adresses both the Christian clergy and Christian believers in general, presenting them with the claim of Bahá´u´lláh being the Messiah, the return of Christ. Why Bahá´u´lláh has called it 'most holy' is not entirely clear but Shoghi Effendi lists it among the tablets that are "most noteworthy", belonging to the "choicest fruits" of Bahá´u´lláh's Revelation (God Passes By 216). For a detailed study of this tablet, see Sours, A Study of Bahá´u´lláh's Tablet to the Christians.
[16] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 11.
[17] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day Is Come 32.
[18] These functions are not to be taken exclusively of course as mothers share the same responsibilities. Undoubtedly the parental roles and functions will be more dynamic in their complementarity as in the past, due to the paradigm shift towards a new age "in which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced" (´Abdu´l-Bahá, quoted in Esslemont, Bahá´u´lláh and the New Era 148).
[19] Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 286.
[20] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 36.
[21] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 31.
[22] It is important in this context to remember that the 'parental' authority lies with the Institution and not with its individual members who cannot regard themselves in any way superior to the community.
[23] Shoghi Effendi, Light of Divine Guidance Vol. I 168. Similarly, in a letter from the Universal House of Justice: "In caring for its community, a Spiritual Assembly should act as a loving father rather than as a stern judge..." Quoted in Lights of Guidance 363.
[24] The image of the "shepherd" is used for God (see, for instance, Psalm 23), and for priests and kings as his representatives on earth (see, for instance, Jer. 50:6). It also refers to the Messiah (see, for instance, Ez. 34:23) who will gather the "lost sheep" because "their shepherds have caused them to go astray" (Jer. 50:6). Christ takes up this theme with his parable of the lost sheep (Matt. 18:12-14) and his sermon about the "good shepherd" (John 10:11-18), alluding to his messianic role. Similarly, Bahá´u´lláh likens his role as Lawgiver to that of a shepherd (see Kitab-i Aqdas 63) and critizises the corrupt clergy as wearing "the guise of a shepherd" (Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 16). References to the members of Bahá´í institutions as "shepherds" allude to messianic promises such as: "And I will give you pastors according to mine heart, which shall feed you with knowledge and understanding" (Jer. 3:13; see also 23:4).
[25] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 38.
[26] Universal House of Justice, quoted in Lights of Guidance 3.
[27] Sears, The Wine of Astonishment 88.
[28] Sours, A Study of Bahá´u´lláh's Tablet to the Christians 76.
[29] Sours, Understanding Biblical Prophecy 65. See also ´Abdu´l-Bahá's interpretation of a related prophecy (Isa. 11:6-8) in Some Answered Questions 63.
[30] Sours, Understanding Biblical Prophecy 64.
[31] Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers (US) 105.
[32] Concerning the priority of moral education, see, for instance, ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Selections 135. About the importance of spiritual education, see, for instance, Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Lights of Guidance 211.
[33] "As the child grows older and more independent, the relative nature of its relationship with its mother and father modifies and the father can play a greater role." Universal House of Justice, quoted in Lights of Guidance 627.
[34] Universal House of Justice, quoted in Lights of Guidance 232.
[35] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Arts 1-2.
[36] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 128. Again, these are not exclusive statements, as others address both parents. See, for instance, ´Abdu´l-Bahá Selections 127: "... it is enjoined upon the father and mother, as a duty, to strive with all effort to train the daughter and the son, to nurse them from the breast of knowledge and to rear them in the bosom of sciences and arts." Such statements seem to stress the importance of the participation of fathers in the educational process as opposed to an imbalanced focus on the bread-winning aspect.
[37] ´Abdu´l-Bahá, quoted in Lights of Guidance 147.
[38] Cf. Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 218; Tablets 42, 44, 71 a.o. The prophecy of Isaiah will be discussed below.
[39] Ethical aspects include freedom from estrangement, devotion, courtesy, dignity, moderation of speech, detachment, frankness, honesty a.o. Concerning the method of consultation outlined by Bahá´u´lláh, see Kitab-i Aqdas 134.
[40] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Consultation 1.
[41] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 168.
[42] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Consultation 1.
[43] Examples for descriptive names are Samuel ('Heard by God'), Daniel ('God is my judge') and also Jesus (Hebr. Joshua, 'God is salvation'). Altered or new names include Abraham ('Father of many nations') for Abram, and Peter (Hebr. Kephas, 'Rock') for Simon. For more details concerning the Biblical use and meaning of names, see Sours, Understanding Biblical Prophecy chapter 17.
[44] The hebrew term alma is generally used for a young (unmarried, i.e. virgin) girl but can also refer to a young married woman. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (Septuaginta), rendering this word as 'virgin', gives an early record of Jewish exegesis which supports the Christian claim of the virgin birth of Jesus.
[45] See, for instance, John 8:29: "And he that sent me is with me: the Father hath not left me alone; for I do always those things that please him." See also John 1:14; 10:30, 38; 14:9-10; 17:21 a.o.
[46] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day Is Come 101.
[47] Cf. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 94-5.
[48] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 33.
[49] Bahá´u´lláh, Prayers and Meditations 279-80.
[50] See Chron. I 28:2.
[51] See Isa. 66:1; Matt. 5:35; and also Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Advent of Divine Justice 78; The Promised Day Is Come 124.
[52] ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Selections 235. See also Lam. 2:1.
[53] Cf. Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 3-5. This tablet, called Lawh-i Karmil (Tablet of Carmel), could be regarded as a divine, mystic response to the earth's desire to be informed about the location of the heavenly Throne. During the lifetime of Bahá´u´lláh, the "Throne", symbolizing his spiritual authority, had been first 'erected' in Bagdad (Gleanings 112; God Passes By 110) and then in Akka (Prayers and Meditations 200). See also a related statement by the Báb, quoted by Bahá´u´lláh in the Kitab-i Aqdas 68: "The Qiblih is indeed He Whom God will make manifest; whenever He moveth, it moveth, until He shall come to rest."
[54] Taherzadeh, The Revelation of Bahá´u´lláh 351-2.
[55] lit. Paradise. Marks both the place (a garden outside of Baghdad) and time (April 21 – May 2) of Bahá´u´lláh's public declaration as Manifestation of God for our day and age.
[56] The Universal House of Justice, quoted in Lights of Guidance 190.
[57] See, for instance, Tablets of the Divine Plan 49 (referring to Bahá´ís as "angels" and "apostles").
[58] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 56-7.
[59] A parallel to Jesus and his mother can be drawn here as well. Some passages in the Bible suggest that Mary did not immediately recognize the station of her son (cf. Matt. 12:46-50; Luke 2:43-51).
[60] Báb, Selections 52.
[61] Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 47.
[62] Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 14-15. The establisment of the throne, which, as seen by Daniel, "was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire" (Dan 7:9) on Mount Carmel could refer to the rulership and guidance of the Universal House of Justice.
[63] This term refers to designations such as "Pen of the Most High", "Tongue of Grandeur", "Hand of God" etc., which describe or rather only hint at the relationship between the Manifestation of God (Bahá´u´lláh) and God. Such passages are often ambiguous because the stress could be placed on either the representative (Bahá´u´lláh) or the Represented One (God), especially in cases where the designation (such as "Ancient of Days") can refer to both.
[64] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 99.
[65] Ibid., 100.
[66] Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 241.
[67] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 44.
[68] Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is come 90.
[69] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 169.
[70] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 93.
[71] Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers (US) 220 ("Fire Tablet").
[72] Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers (US) 98 ("Long Healing Prayer").
[73] Cf. Matt. 26:64.
[74] This designation has been used by Bahá´u´lláh more than 200 times, which indicates the predominant state of his sufferings. On one occasion, Shoghi Effendi even referred to him as "Great Sufferer" (Bahá´í Administration 190).
[75] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Women 1-2.
[76] Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 34.
[77] Cf. Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 71-2.
[78] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 182.
[79] Bahá´u´lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic # 71.
[80] ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Will and Testament 9.
[81] See Kitab-i Aqdas, Note 127 (Crimson Spot), Note 115 (Crimson Arc and Companions), God Passes By 238 (Crimson Book).
[82] See, for instance, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 108; Prayers and Meditations 200 a.o.
[83] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 56.
[84] Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 23. Similarly, Gleanings 100: "I sorrow not for the burden of My imprisonment ... My sorrows are for those who have involved themselves in their corrupt passions, and claim to be associated with the Faith of God..."
[85] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 250, referring to his two years of seclusion in the mountains of Kurdistan.
[86] Cf. Prayers and Meditations 200.
[87] Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 253-4.
[88] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is come 76.
[89] See, for instance ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Promulgation of Universal Peace 431: "Yet these great numbers, instead of being able to dominate Him, could not withstand His wonderful personality and the power and influence of His heavenly Cause."
[90] This name occurs only four times in Bahá´u´lláh's Writings (translated so far, see Gleanings 72; Kitab-i Iqan 22; Hidden Words Persian # 10, 14), as opposed to the designaton Ancient Beauty, which is used around fifteen times by Bahá´u´lláh. Other variants of Beauty include Blessed Beauty (used primarily by ´Abdu´l-Bahá), Most Great Beauty, Abha Beauty (used mainly by Shoghi Effendi), and other descriptive, though not titular, adjectives, such as promised, most effulgent, pure and spotless, resplendent, a.o.
[91] See, for instance, ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Paris Talks 120: "God has created us, one and all - why do we act in opposition to His wishes, when we are all His children, and love the same Father?" Or idem, Promulgation of Universal Peace 266: "God is the Father of all." ´Abdu´l-Bahá often uses the Biblical term Heavenly Father with reference to God (see, for instance, Paris Talks 101, 113, 148; Promulgation of Universal Peace 48, 216, 373, 468 a.o.). For the use of this term in the New Testament, see Matt. 6:14, 26, 32; 15:13; 18:35; Luke 11:13).
[92]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 143.
[93] This seems to be mostly true for the predictions of Christ's return ("in the glory of the Father").
[94] Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 42.
[95] Another example would be Bahá´u´lláh's statement that God "out of utter nothingness, hath created the reality of all things, Who, from naught, hath brought into being the most refined and subtle elements of His creation" (Gleanings 64). What could easily be regarded as a reference to and confirmation of a theory of evolution ex nihilo, "should be taken in a symbolic and not literal sense. It is only to demonstrate the power and greatness of God" (Shoghi Effendi, Messages to the Antipodes 179).
[96] Shoghi Effendi, Unfolding Destiny 448.
[97] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá´u´lláh 109.
[98] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 101.
[99] See Notes in Kitab-i Aqdas 221-2.
[100] Bahá´u´lláh, "Tablet to Jamal-i Burundi" (provisional translation by K. Fananapazir, available on the Internet at http://www.bahailibrary.com).
[101] Christ's promise "For where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them" (Matt. 18:20) can be related to this exposition.
[102] Cf. Hidden Words, Arabic No. 70: " Know thou, that I have wafted unto thee all the fragrances of holiness, have fully revealed to thee My word..."
[103] Bahá´u´lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic No. 67.
[104] Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 167.
[105] Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahá´u´lláh 104.
[106] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 100.
[107] Concerning Christianity being the fulfillment of the Judaic Faith, see Luke 24:44, Matt. 5:17, Acts 3:18.
[108] Prophetic in nature, for instance, is Bahá´u´lláh's statement that the next Revelation of God cannot be expected "ere the expiration of a full thousand years" (Kitab-i Aqdas 32), or his prediction that the next Manifestation of God will have to suffer as well (see God Passes By 250).
[109] ´Abdu´l-Bahá, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá´u´lláh 167.
[110] ´Abdu´l-Bahá, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá´u´lláh 102.
[111] Cf. Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 199: "Once in about a thousand years shall this City be renewed and re-adorned."

chapter 3

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